“Invoking the God X” in the Hebrew Bible: “Qara’ Besheim X” and “Hizkir Besheim X”

Introduction

The Hebrew Bible uses two phrases which are often (but not always) translated “invoke the god X,” an act which is done by pronouncing his name. Readers may not fully realize what “invoking a god” means, and in cases where the phrases are translated some other way, it is important to recognize that even then, “invoke” is sometimes what is meant.

I will show that the concept of invoking a god by pronouncing his name is different from simply saying the god’s name out loud, e.g. in casual conversation or even in prayer. We will see that to invoke a god means to formally address him by pronouncing his name as a way of requesting that the god respond by manifesting his powerful presence to the person. This may occur both within and outside of the cult. Although this is a type of short prayer because the invoker is addressing the god, “prayer” in English more often refers to words that express praise, thanksgiving or subservience to the god; even prayers that request something from the god usually state something specific rather than simply requesting that the god “respond.” For this reason, it is clearer to use the more specific word “invoke” in instances such as this. There are a number of possible reasons for “invoking” the god’s powerful presence, and I will show what they are.

The phrase qara’ besheim X, “call (on) the name of the god X,” appears twenty times in the Hebrew Bible.¹ I will show that in eight (and possibly nine) of those verses its meaning is clearly “invoke a god” as I have defined that term above. In addition, the phrase hizkir besheim X, “recall” or “make mention of the name of the god X,” appears four times in the Hebrew Bible, and I will argue that all four of these appearances have that same meaning.

Qara’ Besheim X

1. The clearest examples showing that this phrase means “invoke a god” as defined above are the four uses of the phrase in the narrative of the contest between Elijah and the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel in I Kings 18:24-26. The context of this contest is a cultic one, namely the offering of a sacrifice on an altar. Elijah proposes to the prophets of Baal: uqera’tem besheim ’eloheichem va’ani ‘eqra’ vesheim-YHWH… (“You will then invoke your god by name and I will invoke the Lord by name…”).² The objective of the act (literally, “calling out using the god’s name”) is that the god will manifest his powerful presence to “answer” or “respond” to the caller (v. 24), in this case by sending fire to ignite the sacrifice. In vv. 24-26, as well as in I Kings 18:36-37, we see that the calling involves addressing the god by name and requesting that he answer or respond: the prophets of Baal shout haba’al ’aneinu (“Baal, answer us!”), and Elijah addresses YHWH in a short prayer-request which similarly ends with ’aneini YHWH ’aneini (“Answer me, YHWH, answer me!”).³

   The act of “invoking a god” is thus a direct request made to the god by name that the god manifest his powerful presence in some way to the invoker, in this case to help the one who invokes him. Although it is possible that, originally and/or in other cultures, invocation was a magical act in which the god was summoned and forced to appear, it seems here to be a request of the god. Although some scholars have seen this phrase as an expression which always indicates worship,⁴ we understand “worship” to be acts or words that express praise, loyalty, thanksgiving, service or subservience to a god; however, this is not the aim of this “calling.” On the contrary, here the calling precedes an act of worship (the offering of a sacrifice). Furthermore, we see that in other cultures it may be accompanied by other ritual forms of worship such as dance and self-mutilation (v. 28). Note also that when YHWH manifests His powerful presence by igniting Elijah’s sacrifice, the people react to this by “throwing themselves on their faces” (v. 39: vayipelu ’al-peneihem). This act (similar to lehishtaḥavot, “to prostrate oneself”) is also a ritual act of “worship,” demonstrating both respect and fear towards the god. Although the people may do this here more out of fear than out of worshipful respect, this is a further example showing that invoking a god can precede ritual acts of worship.

2. A second clear example of this phrase meaning “invoke a god” appears in the encounter in II Kings 5 between Naaman, commander of the army of the king of Aram, and Elisha the prophet. Naaman requests that Elisha cure his leprosy, and Elisha tells Naaman that washing seven times in the Jordan would cure him. Naaman is greatly angered; in v. 11 he says: …hineih ’amarti ‘eilay yeitzei’ yatzo’ ve’amad veqara’ besheim-YHWH ’elohav veheinif yado ’el-hamaqom… (“‘I thought,’ he said, ‘he would surely come out to me, and would stand and invoke the Lord his God by name, and would wave his hand toward the spot [i.e. the leprous lesion]…’”).

   Naaman assumed that Elisha would “invoke” YHWH by name, which means request that YHWH manifest His powerful presence to help him; that divine power, when directed at the leprous lesion, would cure it. There is no context of cult or worship here; the god and his help can be invoked by a formal address to the god by name requesting his aid in an otherwise secular context.

3. Two additional examples of this phrase having the meaning “invoke a god” occur in Moses’ request to YHWH that He manifest His presence to him, namely in Exodus 33:19 and 34:5-6. In Exodus 33:19, YHWH says veqara’ti vesheim YHWH lefanecha (“I will proclaim before you the name of the Lord”). NJPS doesn’t use the word “invoke” here, perhaps because “invoking a god” is something that human beings do, whereas here YHWH Himself (or perhaps His retinue) rather than a human being performs the act. However, the phrase is actually used the same way here as it is when humans perform the act; it is used here to introduce or announce YHWH’s own intent to manifest Himself. Ibn Ezra (12th century CE Spain) suggests something like this when he writes “we learn from this how Moses would do this ‘calling’;” the use of this phrase in reference to YHWH is analogous to its human use and is followed by the same divine manifestation.⁵

   The words used (in Ex. 34:6), “YHWH YHWH!”, are followed by a listing of His actions and traits, a fact noted by Rashbam (12th century CE France) and Sforno (16th century CE Italy), first and foremost describing His kind and helping nature. We might imagine this as analogous to a king whose appearance is ceremoniously “announced” to his subjects as he enters the room where those subjects are assembled waiting for him to appear, either to show him honor, respect or service (analogous to “worship”) or to petition him for help. Just as in I K 18, Moses reacts by prostrating himself in fear and respect before YHWH’s presence (Ex. 34:8 – vayiqod ’artzah vayishtaḥu), an act which is form of worship.

4. Joel 3:4-5 say that, on the “Day of YHWH” when YHWH settles accounts, vehayah kol ‘asher-yiqra’ besheim YHWH yimaleit… (“But everyone who invokes the name of the Lord shall escape…”). Once again, this must mean “call out YHWH’s name in a request that He manifest His powerful and helping presence” to help the invoker escape. Also, note again that this is a type of prayer, but a very specific type: addressing YHWH by name in a very short general request for help. There is no clear indication that this use is meant in a cultic context; people can invoke YHWH’s name wherever they are when His help is needed.

5. Finally, in Psalm 116:4 the author says, uvesheim-YHWH ‘eqra’ / ’anah YHWH maltah nafshi (“and I invoked the name of the Lord, ‘O Lord, save my life!’”). Dahood translates “invoked,” while Goldingay translates “call out in Yhwh’s name.” We see that this verse uses the expression which elsewhere means “invoke,” i.e. calling out to YHWH by name in a request that He manifest His helping power.⁶ We should, however, note that there are two other verses in this psalm where this phrase is used, vv. 13 and 17; these instances do not seem to be “invoking” YHWH for help. Furthermore, the request is not a general but a specific one, i.e. “save my life!” I will defer a fuller discussion of this to a subsequent article. However, the possibility exists that the meaning of the phrase qara’ besheim YHWH in these three instances may represent a different way of using it.

In summary, in eight (and possibly nine) instances the phrase qara’ besheim X is specifically used to mean “invoke” a god, i.e. a general request that the god respond by manifesting his powerful presence to the invoker.

Variants of the Phrase Qara’ Besheim X Which Also Mean “Invoke”

In addition to the above instances, three verses use the phrase without the be- before sheim (i.e. qara’ sheim X), or even without sheim altogether (i.e. qara’ ’el/le X). Examination of these instances shows that the meaning of these phrases is (or may also be) “invoke the god X.”

1. Psalm 99:6 reads: Moshe ve’Aharon bechohanav / uShemu’el beqorei’ shemo / qor’im ‘el-YHWH vehu’ ya’aneim (“Moses and Aaron among His priests / Samuel, among those who call on His name / when they called to the Lord, He answered them”).⁷ The verse uses the words “priests” and “those who call on His name” in parallel positions, which could be taken to mean either that the poet considers them synonymous, or that he considers them two important examples of religious functionaries. The first view seems more probable here in light of the use of the plural qor’im in the third colon,⁸ indicating that all three of these leaders “called on His name.” While the phrase is used without be-, i.e. qor’ei shemo and not qor’ei bishemo, “calling His name” (the literal meaning of qara’ shemo) is meant in the sense of calling to YHWH by name; as in I Kings 18 above which uses qara’ besheim YHWH, the goal of such a calling is vehu’ ya’aneim, to be answered or responded to by YHWH. From this, we can infer that “calling His name” means to “invoke” Him, i.e. to request that He manifest His powerful, helping presence.⁹ Although we only have this one instance of the phrase without the be-, it seems that the phrase in either form can mean to invoke a god.

2. I Samuel 12:18 reads Vayiqra’ Shemu’el ’el-YHWH… (“Samuel prayed to the Lord… ;” – literally, “Samuel called to YHWH”), to whom YHWH responds by manifesting His powerful presence in thunder and rain. While “calling to” someone usually has a general meaning (e.g. YHWH can call to Moses – Leviticus 1:1 – or to Samuel – I Samuel 3:4), here “calling to Him” appears to be specifically used as another way of saying “calling (on) the name (of) YHWH.” Thus, from the context it seems that Samuel actually “invoked” YHWH’s powerful presence to help him by showing the people that YHWH approved his views. As previously mentioned, while referring to this as a prayer is technically correct, it obscures the specific nature of this prayer as an invocation, a request for YHWH to manifest Himself with a response.¹⁰

3. Psalm 145:18 says: qarov YHWH lechol-qor’av // lechol ‘asher yiqra’uhu be’emet (“The Lord is near to all who call Him // to all who call Him with sincerity”). The implication of this verse is that YHWH will help the one who calls Him, which we saw is often the meaning of qara’ besheim YHWH as “invoke” His powerful, helping presence.¹¹ However, the lack of the word besheim coupled with the lack of specific reference to YHWH as “answering” may argue that it is better to take this as referring to “calling on YHWH” in a more general way rather than specifically “invoking” Him. I hope to address this additional sense of “calling on YHWH” in a future article.

Hizkir Besheim X

The phrase hizkir besheim X appears four times in the Hebrew Bible (Josh. 23:7, Isa. 48:1, Amos 6:10 and Ps. 20:8), whereas the phrase hizkir (’et) sheim X appears seven times.¹² With regard to the first phrase, NJPS varies in its translation; in Joshua 23:7 and Amos 6:10 it translates “utter the name,” in Isaiah 48:1 “invoke the God of Israel,” and in Psalm 20:8 “call on the name.”

Smelik argues that the phrase hizkir besheim X has a different meaning that hizkir (’et) sheim X. He claims that the phrase hizkir besheim X in all four of its occurrences means “take an oath on/swear by the name of the god X.”¹³ He cites Moshe Greenberg’s suggestion (made “in passing”) that the phrase has this meaning in Joshua 23:7 and Isaiah 48:1 because the verb zakāru in Akkadian (the root of which is z.k.r., the same as the root of hizkir in biblical Hebrew) is sometimes used to mean the same thing (Greenberg gives no examples in his article).¹⁴ Smelik undertakes to show that this meaning fits all four instances of the use of this phrase. I will show that these four instances are much more easily understood as meaning “invoke a god” by name.

1. Isaiah 48:1b is composed of three cola: … hanishba’im besheim YHWH / uvei’lohay Yisra’el yazkiru / lo’ ve’emet velo’ vitzdaqah. Smelik notes that the verbs nishba’ be- and hizkir be- are used here as a parallel word pair. This parallelism was noted by Rabbi David Kimḥi (Radak, 12th-13th century CE Provence), whose comment on the first two cola is his standard way of referring to poetic parallelism: kefel ha’inyan bemilot shonot (“the same thing said in different words”). This parallelism could indicate that both expressions refer to taking an oath or swearing using YHWH’s name. Smelik cites the Akkadian expressions zakāru nīš ilim and šum ili zakāru which he says mean “taking an oath.” He also points out that in Jeremiah 4:2a the phrase be’emet bemishpat uvitzdaqah (“in sincerity, justice and righteousness”, which is similar to the third colon in Isaiah 48:1b) is preceded by and used to modify swearing using YHWH’s name. Finally, Smelik cites an Old Aramaic inscription on a statue of the god Hadad erected by Panammu I in 8th century BCE Syria. The inscription says in part … yzbḥ hdd vyzkr ’šm hdd… which Smelik translates, “… he does sacrifice to Hadad and swears by the name of Hadad…” Smelik uses all of this evidence to argue that the phrase hizkir besheim ’elohay Yisra’el is being used here to mean “take an oath or swear using the name of the God of Israel.”

   With regard to the Hadad inscription, although Smelik says that “[t]his inscription is indicative of an oath rather than a mere invocation,” there is nothing in the full text which he cites to indicate a context of or reason for the swearing of an oath.

   In his commentary on Isaiah, Shalom Paul¹⁵ translates “invoke the God of Israel” (as does Blenkinsopp¹⁶ in his commentary). Paul says that besheim in the first colon “does double-duty,” meaning that it is meant to be understood in the second colon as well (i.e. uvesheim ’elohay Yisra’el yazkiru). He cites the Aramaic Hadad inscription as a similar use of hizkir, but translates it “He invokes the name of the god Hadad.” Finally, Paul also calls attention to the Akkadian phrase šumam zakaru which he says “denotes the invocation of the deity in oaths and vows” (my emphasis).

   This last point is an important one. The reason for addressing the god or gods by name during a swearing ceremony is precisely to invoke their powerful presence to serve as witnesses of the oath taken and guarantors of punishment of anyone who violates it. Thus while the phrase hizkir besheim X is used in such ceremonies to indicate the requesting of a god’s powerful and helpful presence as a witness and guarantor, it may not be limited to that context. It is one reason among many for invoking a god to manifest his presence. Similarly, in the Hadad inscription, it seems more likely that offering a sacrifice is followed by an invocation of Hadad’s name to request his presence and acceptance of the sacrifice.

   Thus, we see two more reasons for invoking a god by name in addition to a general request that he manifest his powerful presence to render aid (for example, by igniting a sacrifice or by curing a disease): to call upon him to witness and be guarantor of an oath (another form of help), or to accept a sacrifice (acknowledge a ritual of worship). In contrast with the examples of qara’ besheim X in which the invocation preceded a ritual/worship act, here we see that the invocation of a god by name can also follow such an act. Blenkinsopp says that the name of Israel’s God was also invoked in liturgical praise and thanksgiving; thus he too understands the parallelism to be between two uses of “invoking” YHWH’s name: in swearing ceremonies and in the liturgy of worship. Although in this article I will not consider this sort of liturgical invocation as a form of praise in the Hebrew Bible, I hope to consider it in a future article (see “Conclusion”).

2. Joshua 23:7b reads: … uvesheim ‘elohayhem lo’-tazkiru velo’ tashbi’u velo’ ta’avdum velo’ tishtaḥavu lahem. In this verse, the word besheim seems to be doing “double duty” (see Shalom Paul’s comment above) just as in Isaiah 48:1, i.e. it is understood to apply to both the verbs tazkiru and tashbi’u. For the same reason as Greenberg gave for Isaiah 48:1b above, Smelik translates: “And by the name of their gods, do not take any oath and do not swear” (italics in the original).

   Smelik’s interpretation is that the first two verbs are synonyms for the same prohibited act of oath-taking/swearing using the names of other gods. If, however, the last two verbs (ta’avdum and tishtaḥavu) are two separate prohibitions, this would appear to be extremely odd. The verb ’avad often refers to the ritual worship act of sacrifice in biblical Hebrew while hishtaḥaveh often refers to prostration, a different ritual act of worship. Why would the text refer to one act using two different expressions, followed by two other acts mentioned individually?

   Furthermore, Paul notes that here as well as in Isaiah 48:1 hizkir and nishba’ “appear in conjunction.” However, while the Hebrew verb for “swear” is nishba’ in the nif’al construction the verb tashbi’u which appears here is in the hif’il construction; the latter does not mean “swear” or “take an oath” but “make someone else swear/take an oath.” Presumably for this reason, some scholars have suggested that the word be read tishav’u in the nif’al construction.¹⁷

   If our (Masoretic) text is correct, though, there are three possibilities:

   The verse might be understood to mean “do not even mention the names of their gods out loud, and do not allow others to do so in making them swear/take an oath.” However, it seems odd to link a blanket prohibition on Israelites’ simply saying these names under any circumstances with a much more specific prohibition on allowing someone (Israelite or not) to do so in an Israelite-required oath-swearing ceremony.

   The words lo’-tazkiru may have the more general meaning “do not invoke their gods by name.” Since many reasons for invoking a god exist, the four prohibitions might therefore refer to four different acts: do not invoke other gods by name for any reason, do not allow others to use those gods’ names when requiring them to swear an oath, do not sacrifice to them and do not prostrate yourself before them. Thus here too hizkir besheim X may refer to “invoking a god.”¹⁸

   A third possibility is that the verse means “by the name of their gods neither you (an Israelite) shall swear/take an oath, nor shall you allow someone else (a non-Israelite) required to swear/take an oath to do so using the names of their gods.” This would argue that the two verbs refer to two different (albeit related) acts regarding oath-taking, both of which involve the invoking of a god.

   Stanley Gevirtz¹⁹ calls attention to a fact that raises another explanation along the lines of possibility #3. He notes that the two verbs at the end of our verse, ’avad and hishtaḥaveh, appear as parallel terms in biblical poetry (albeit “rarely”). He cites Psalm 72, which mentions a list of things which the worshipper asks God to grant the king; v. 11 reads: veyishtaḥavu-lo chol-melachim / kol-goyim ya’avduhu (“Let all kings bow to him, and all nations serve him”). Perhaps these two verbs are being used in this verse as parallel ways of saying “revere, pay respect to.”

   However, Gevirtz also notes that these verbs also appear together in prose, used in consecutive phrases, quite frequently. My research indicates that sometimes they appear in the order ’avad followed by hishtaḥaveh, while other times they occur in the reverse order.²⁰ Gevirtz and others have pointed out that in the Hebrew Bible there are many such pairs used in consecutive prose phrases, in which the words can appear in either order, and which can be used in either order as parallel terms in poetry. We saw above that the two verbs ’avad and hishtaḥaveh might be used as parallel terms in Psalm 72:11 to indicate “revere, pay respect to” the king. Perhaps these same two verbs are used as a consecutive pair in Joshua 23:7b (and elsewhere) in a similar way. They are a pair of cultic acts being used to indicate “revering, paying respect to” a god, a concept which we would render as “worship.”²¹

   If so, another version of possibility #3 above may be that Joshua 23:7b is using two pairs of terms, both of which are being used to refer to a range of acts. The first pair refers to “taking an oath/swearing” and “allowing someone else to take a required oath” using the names of other gods; these two phrases taken together cover all the possibilities of swearing/oath-taking using the name of another god. The second pair could also be referring, by using two examples, to the concept of “worshipping” gods.

   I do not think we have the ability to argue that one explanation of this verse is more probable than the other. It is possible to see the four verbs as independent acts, with lo’ tazkiru having the general meaning “do not invoke them by name” (possibility #2). It is also possible to see lo’ tazkiru and lo’ tashbi’u as referring to oath-swearing ceremonies of two sorts (possibility #3). Finally, we could understand possibility #3 by seeing lo’ tazkiru and lo’ tashbi’u as a pair which cover all possible acts of swearing/oath-taking in Israel, and are thus used to indicate a range of acts similar to another such use of two consecutive verbs in the second part of the half-verse. In all of these cases, however, it is clear that hizkir besheim X refers to “invocation of a god.”

3. Amos 6:8-10 is at first glance unclear. Amos 6:8 says that YHWH swears “by Himself” (nishba ‘adonai YHWH benafsho) that He will hand over “the city” (presumably Israel’s capital) to its fate. Verse 9 goes on to say that the vast majority of the inhabitants will die. Verse 10 then relates how a relative who enters a house to remove the bodies will ask the one survivor that he finds, “are any more alive?” and the survivor will reply “none.” And then “he” – presumably the relative – will say: has ki lo’ lehazkir besheim YHWH.

   Smelik says that “[t]he explicit use of God’s Name is confined to cultic use in either praise or swearing;” since in Amos 6:10 praise doesn’t fit, he feels the likelihood is that lehazkir besheim YHWH refers to swearing here. Smelik suggests that lehazkir besheim YHWH here refers to swearing in rage in a blasphemous manner.

   The view that the explicit use of God’s Name is confined to cultic use in either praise or swearing is incorrect. In our discussion of the phrase qara’ besheim X above, we have seen that the divine name may be explicitly used to invoke a god in non-cultic settings. In addition, Smelik’s explanation of this verse is extremely weak for three reasons: first, swearing in blasphemous rage would not be a “cultic use” of God’s name, and the situation presented in the verse is not a cultic one at all. Second, in English we use the word “swear using God’s name” in at least two senses: cursing in vulgarity or anger using God’s name, and solemnly testifying to the truth or promising to do something using God’s name. In biblical Hebrew, however, hizkir besheim is never used in the first sense; to curse using God’s name is qll (be)(sheim) YHWH/’elohim or nqb (’et) (ha)sheim (see Ex. 22:27, Lev. 24:11-23); sometimes the root brk is used as a euphemism, e.g. I Kings 21:10 and 13, Job 1:11 and 2:9. Finally, the text gives no other indication that the survivor is raging against God.

   In his commentary on Amos, Eidevall translates the last portion of v. 10: “… and he [the relative] asks someone at the rear of the house, ‘Is anyone with you?,’ he will reply, ‘No one.’ Then he will say, ‘Hush!,’ for the name of YHWH must not be invoked” (my emphasis).²² Regarding the question of why YHWH should not be invoked, Eidevall writes, “… it is likely that some kind of apotropaic thinking is involved. In a situation like that, one should avoid invoking the destructive power and presence of the deity who was thought to be responsible for the disaster… Hence, lamenting or praying to YHWH could be seen as dangerous.”

   I assume that Eidevall’s reason for considering the “invoking” of YHWH so soon after He has caused such destruction as dangerous is that if YHWH is still angry and in a destructive mood, His presence might cause even the survivor and the relative to die as well. So far we have seen no instances where invoking a god would have the effect of his manifesting his destructive power. But an even more fundamental question must be addressed: if the verse is referring to “invoking YHWH,” what possible reason could the survivor have to do this? The relative clearly thinks it possible that the survivor might do it; otherwise the relative would not have any reason to caution him against it. The destruction is over, so there would be no reason to invoke YHWH to manifest His helping presence.

   It is possible that seeing so many bodies, the survivor might have had the reflexive urge to exclaim something like “YHWH help us!” without the intention of actually “invoking” Him, i.e. requesting His presence. This is similar to Eidevall’s comment that lamenting or praying is intended. Such a reflexive exclamation may have been thought to border on the form of an invocation of the powerful divine presence, being understandable as a direct address to Him requesting His help in this dire situation. The relative may thus be warning the survivor not to exclaim “YHWH help us!” and thereby accidentally invoke His presence. But the question still remains as to why this would be undesirable.

   Rather than the danger of unleashing YHWH’s destructive power in anger, I would suggest another possibility. Given the overwhelming presence of impurity in the house due to the large number of dead bodies, the relative is cautioning the survivor not to say anything that could be taken as an invocation, even as a request for help. It would certainly be unfitting, and might be dangerous, to request the holy power of the divine presence in a place of such impurity.

   At any rate, we can see that it is more reasonable that the phrase hizkir besheim X is being used here with the meaning of “invoking” a god rather than “swearing” using the god’s name.

4. Psalm 20:8 reads: ’Eileh varechev ve’eileh vasusim / va’anaḥnu besheim-YHWH ’elohaynu nazkir.

   Smelik notes that the first colon of the verse omits any verb, simply prefixing the preposition b (in the form of va) to “chariots” and to “horses.” He says that this is an example of “ellipsis,” in which the verb appears only in one half of the verse but functions in both halves.²³ In other words, we should understand the colon as ’Eileh varechev ve’eileh vasusim yazkiru.

   Smelik accepts the view of previous scholars that Psalm 20 was part of a cultic ceremony in anticipation of a military campaign. Relying again on the view that the explicit use of God’s Name is confined to cultic use in either praise or swearing, and since praise doesn’t fit here, Smelik holds that the likelihood is that nazkir besheim YHWH in v. 8 refers to swearing. In short, Smelik explains that Psalm 20:8 sets up a contrasting parallel between swearing by one’s military equipment (horses and chariots) versus swearing by the name of YHWH.

   As to what may be meant by “swearing [or taking an oath] by horses and chariots,” Smelik notes that in the ancient Near East oaths were “validated” by invoking a god in the presence of a sacred object or a divine substitute, and it was common for the latter to be a “divine emblem.” In the Neo-Assyrian period, such divine emblems or standards were mounted on the yoke of (chariot-) horses or on the chariot. Smelik proposes that the act in v. 8 is “a kind of swearing, with mutual obligations to be fulfilled.” He notes as evidence the practice in the Hittite empire, where divination and sacrifice before a military campaign were often combined with a vow made to the god in return for victory. Smelik’s view is that it is possible that Psalm 20:8a alludes to sacrifices to the divine standards or even to the horses and chariots themselves. However, he cautions that based on the evidence presented above we can only speculate about the possibility that such rituals performed to assure divine aid involved swearing, perhaps to vow offerings in return for victory.²⁴

   I would point out that hizkir besheim in v. 8 is followed by qara’ (calling to God) in v. 10: YHWH hoshi’ah / Hamelech ya’aneinu veyom qor’einu (“May YHWH grant victory! May the King [i.e. YHWH] answer us when we call!” – italics mine). Thus, vv. 8-10 seem to refer to the same ritual procedure. We saw in Psalm 99:6 above that “calling (to) a god” has the same meaning as “calling (on) the name of a god.” This would indicate that what is being referred to here is invoking the god’s powerful, helping presence in hopes, as we have seen elsewhere, of the god answering the request, in this instance by fighting for the Israelite army.

   Even if Israel’s adversaries did have pre-war cultic ceremonies involving their horses-and-chariots, it appears equally possible (if not more probable) to explain va’anaḥnu besheim-YHWH ‘elohaynu nazkir as referring to invoking YHWH by name to request His powerful and helpful presence in the battles to come. Psalm 20:8 is contrasting the king’s enemies’ invocation of their gods’ help in battle via the divine standards on their chariotry with the Israelite cult’s invocation of YHWH’s helping presence as the king and his army go out to war. The appearance of hizkir besheim in v. 8 and qara’ in v. 10 is also evidence that hizkir besheim X and qara’ X may (at least sometimes) have the same meaning “invoke a god.”

   As a final point, Smelik cites three other much later texts in support of his view that hizkir besheim X means to swear using the god X’s name. The most revealing in my opinion is the Aramaic Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Numbers 31:8. This Targum’s date is uncertain but is generally thought to be no earlier than the beginning of the Common Era and possibly centuries later than that. The Targum says that when Balaam saw that Phinehas the priest was pursuing him, Balaam magically flew into the sky. The Targum continues as follows: mn yd ‘dkr [dkr being an Aramaic root equivalent to zkr] pnḥs šm’ rb’ vqdyš’ uprḥ btrwy, which Smelik translates, “Immediately, Phinehas swore by the Great and Holy Name and flew after him.” Smelik says this shows that “the invocation [sic] of God’s name does not involve an act of praising, but the magic effects of swearing.” However, the context makes it more likely that “invoke” (as Smelik himself translates) rather than “swear by” is meant; there is no reason for Phinehas to swear any oath in this situation, but by pronouncing the sacred Name he invoked God (i.e. requested that He manifest Himself and His helping power), and this power enabled Phinehas to fly after Balaam.

Conclusion

The expressions qara’ besheim X, qara’ ’el X, and hizkir besheim X (“call (on) or recall the name (of) X”) do not mean to simply say the god X’s name out loud. In the examples we have reviewed, it refers to a formal pronouncement, whether as part of the cult or not. In the examples we have the text appears to understand it not as magic but as a human request (or in a few cases, a divine decision referred to using human terms). It means to “invoke the god,” i.e. to address the god by name in a brief general request that he respond by manifesting his powerful presence which in some way will aid the caller. When performed by people, it is by definition a form of prayer, but an extremely brief one, and not the sort of prayer which we would see as “worship” in that it expresses praise, loyalty, thanksgiving, service or subservience.

There are numerous other verses in the Hebrew Bible where the phrase qara’ besheim/‘el YHWH is used, but where these phrases’ meaning may not be “invoke.” In addition, the phrase hizkir (’et) sheim X is also used, and that phrase can have other meanings as well. As I mentioned above, these phrases may sometimes be used liturgically as a form of praise. I hope to be able to examine these phrases in a subsequent article.